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Explore the White Tower

Explore all four floors of the White Tower at the Tower of London using the Unity 3d game engine.

A Medieval Mystery

There appear to be some strange connections between the fourteenth century Old Wardour Castle and ancient stone circle Stonehenge.

1: Location

Old Wardour Castle appears to be aligned to ancient sites in the Stonehenge landscape.

2: Alignment

Stonehenge is aligned to the Summer Solstice. Old Wardour has a very similar alignment.

3: Size

Could the builders of Old Wardour used mesaurements from Stonehenge to layout the geometrical keep?

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3D/VR

Virtual Buildings

Transport yourself back up to a thousand years and explore historical buildings as they may have appeared in the past.

1176 .. 1200
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Twelfth Century

185 Historical events occurring between 1176 and 1200

Years: 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 1191 1192 1193 1194 1195 1196 1197 1198 1199 1200

1176

English Regnal years: 22 Henry II - 23 Henry II
 
Deaths

Clare, Richard fitzGilbert de (Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke) (b.1130 - d.1176)

Clifford, Rosamond ( - d.1176)

Constance (Countess of Toulouse) ( - d.1176)

...
Croxden Abbey founded
Monks from the Savigniac abbey Aulnay-sur-Odon in Normandy found a new abbey in England.
...
Construction work at Arundel Castle
More improvements were made to Arundel Castle between 1176 and 1188. [1]
...
Cwmhir Abbey is founded
Cistercian monks from Whitland founded the Welsh abbey of Cwmhir in this year. [2]
...
Peveril Castle Keep
A square central keep was constructed at Peveril castle which was under the control of Henry II. [3]
...
Work begins on new London Bridge
Peter de Colechurch began the construction of a new London Bridge across the Thames, replacing the old wooden structure that had been destroyed by fire in 1136. The new bridge was built of stone and took until 1209 to complete. [4]
...
Assize of Northampton
With the Assize of Northampton King Henry II built upon the criminal justice system that he had set out in 1166 at Clarendon. The country was divided into six areas and these areas were covered by six groups of justices. The justices would follow a circuit around each area. [5]
...
The first Eisteddfod
Lord Rhys held the first eisteddfod at Cardigan Castle after rebuilding work at the fortress was completed.
Summer
Death of Strongbow in Ireland
Summer
Richard 'Strongbow' fitzGilbert de Clare, Earl of Pembroke died in Ireland. [6]
See Also

1177

English Regnal years: 23 Henry II - 24 Henry II
 
Deaths

Bigod, Hugh (1st Earl of Norfolk) ( - d.1177)

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Henry as arbitrator
Again King Henry's knowledge of law is used in a conflict. This time between Alfonso IX of Castile, and Sancho VI of Navarre. The meeting was held in London. [7]
...
Byland Abbey founded
After several years of moving the location of this abbey, the Cistercian monks finally settled at Byland in North Yorkshire. [2]
...
Henry II refounds Amesbury Abbey
Because of complaints about the abbess and nuns, King Henry II removed them from Amesbury Abbey and replaced them nuns from the abbey of Fontevraud Abbey in France making it an alien priory. The abbey was originally founded with Benedictine nuns in 979 by Alfrida.
...
Construction of Carrickfergus Castle
Carrickfergus Castle was built by John de Courcy, the Norman knight who invaded and conquered the Irish region of Ulidia (Ulster). [8]
Episode: Conquest of Ireland [highlight all]
...
Katla Volcano Eruption
Eruption of the large Icelandic volcano. [9]
More Natural World Events
Feb
The conquest of Ulidia (Ulster)
Feb
John de Courcy, a Norman knight with an army of around 320 men from Dublin, attacked the area of Ulidia now Ulster and captured its capital town Downpatrick. The king of the area, MacDunlevy, attempted to retake the town but was beaten back by de Courcy.
Episode: Conquest of Ireland [highlight all]
Feb 13
Joan becomes the Queen of Sicily
Feb 13
In the city of Palermo, on the island of Sicily, Joan, the daughter of King Henry II married William II, the king of Sicily. [10]
May
Council at Oxford
May
At the Council of Oxford King King Henry II gave his title of Lord of Ireland to his son Prince John. [6]
Jun
Courcy becomes lord of Ulidia
Jun
MacDunlevy, the native king of Ulidia (Ulster), was joined by the king of a neighbouring district and raised a large army to retake Ulidia from John de Courcy. They were also joined by several Irish bishops and many clerics. But the army was not able to defeat Courcy who then became lord of Ulidia. [8]
Episode: Conquest of Ireland [highlight all]
See Also

1178

English Regnal years: 24 Henry II - 25 Henry II
...
Witham Priory founded by Henry II
As part of his penance for his involvement in the death of Archbishop Thomas Becket, King Henry II of England founded the first of the small number of Carthusian houses that were created in England. Witham Priory also known as Witham Charterhouse was built in Somerset and populated by monks from Grande Chartreuse the mother monastery of the Carthusian religious order.
Jun 18
Possible impact on the Moon
Jun 18
A report from Gervase, a medieval chronicler at Canterbury, appears to indicate that the Moon was hit by a comet and resulted in flaming debris being ejected into space. Further reports state that people were killed by the debris hitting the Earth. So did the comet hit the Moon or just burn up in the atmosphere? [11]
More Natural World Events
See Also

1179

English Regnal years: 25 Henry II - 26 Henry II
...
Richard (I) takes the impenetrable fortress town of Taillebourg.
Within two weeks Richard broke the defences of the fortress town of Taillebourg. King Henry II employed his son Richard to bring the rebellious barons of the Aquitaine area under control. [12]
...
Canterbury Trinity Chapel and corona building work
Canterbury Trinity Chapel and corona building work by William Englishman. [13]
...
City of Rochester fire
In 1177 or 1179 another fire took hold in the city of Rochester damaging the Cathedral.
...
Innocent III becomes the Antipope
(Not the same as Pope Innocent III)
...
Lateran Synod
At this Council led by Pope Alexander III it was decreed that the election of a Pope should be done only by Cardinals and that two thirds of them should agree on the same candidate. This was done to prevent a repeat of the schism that had seen a small number of Cardinals vote for a different candidate who then became an anti-pope. The meeting of the Cardinals where they vote for the new pope was given the term Conclave.
Nov 1
Philip II of France crowned
Nov 1
Following the Capetian tradition of the French Kings, King Louis VII of France had his eldest son Philip crowned at Reims Cathedral. Philip then became joint ruler of France. [14]
See Also

1180

English Regnal years: 26 Henry II - 27 Henry II
 
Deaths

Louis (VII, The Young, King of France, 1137-1180) (b.1121 - d.1180)

...
Wells Cathedral building begins
Work on Wells Cathedral began in this year. (More Information to follow)
...
Kenilworth Castle keep
The massive keep at Kenilworth was under construction during this period. [15]
...
Construction of Conisbrough Castle
Built by Hamelin Plantagenet, Henry II's brother. [16]
Jun 28
Treaty of Gisors
Jun 28
A non-aggression treaty signed between Philippe Augustus and Henry II. [17]
Aug
Baldwin becomes Bishop of Worcester
Aug
Baldwin became the Bishop of Worcester after the death of Roger.
Sep 18
Philippe Augustus takes the French throne
Sep 18
Philippe II, Augustus succeeds to the French throne after the death of his father. [17]
See Also

3D Virtual Reconstructions

Click to explore

1181

English Regnal years: 27 Henry II - 28 Henry II
 
Deaths

Alexander (III, Pope) (b.1105 - d.1181)

...
Assize of Arms
This law was passed to force all freemen to arm themselves according to their wealth with weapons and equipment in order to protect their homes and country from invaders.
...
Marriage of Geoffrey to Constance of Brittany
Geoffrey,one of the younger sons of King Henry II of England married Constance of Brittany and was granted the title Duke of Brittany.
Aug
Supernova SN 1181
Aug
Chinese astronomers saw and documented a supernova now known as SN 1181 and is believed to have originated in the constellation Cassiopeia.
More Natural World Events
Sep
Lucius III becomes Pope
Sep
See Also

1182

English Regnal years: 28 Henry II - 29 Henry II
 
Births

Otto (IV, Roman Emperor) (b.1182 - d.1218)

...
Kenilworth Castle becomes the King's property
Henry de Clinton exchanged Kenilworth Castle for other land? [15]
...
Abergavenny Castle attacked
In 1182 Abergavenny Castle was invaded by the sons of Sitsyllt in revenge for the death of their father. [3]
...
Dingstow Castle
Dingstow (Dingestow) Castle was under construction by 1182, in the form of a motte and bailey. Located near Monmouth in south Wales. [3]
...
Dedication of Notre Dame Cathedral
The high altar was complete enough at Notre Dame in Paris for its dedication ceremony lead by the Papal Legate Henry and Heraclius, the patriarch of Jerusalem. [18]
See Also

1183

English Regnal years: 29 Henry II - 30 Henry II
 
Deaths

Henry ('the Young King') (b.1155 - d.1183)

Jun
The Young King dies
Jun
Henry II's son Henry, crowned as the Young King, died of dysentery and Richard became heir to the English throne. [12]
See Also

1184

English Regnal years: 30 Henry II - 31 Henry II
...
Assize of Woodstock
King Henry II issues a forest code to ensure the royal forests were protected and prioritised the welfare of the animals over the needs of the local people.
...
Chichester Cathedral
Chichester Cathedral was consecrated by Bishop Seffrid. [19]
May
Fire destroys Glastonbury Abbey
May
A serious fire damaged the abbey at Glastonbury resulting in the need for major rebuilding work. [20]
See Also

1185

English Regnal years: 31 Henry II - 32 Henry II
...
Lincoln Cathedral damaged
Earth tremors damaged the Cathedral at Lincoln beyond repair. The earthquake must have been very powerful as it was said that it was felt throughout the country. Only the West front survived in good shape and rest of the building had to be demolished.
More Natural World Events
...
Earthquake in Sicily
Reports of an earthquake in the Plantagenet Chronicles occurring in Sicily. Need to confirm.
More Natural World Events
...
Alfonso I of Portugal dies
Alfonso of Portugal died after reaching ninety years of age. He was succeeded by his second legitimate son Sancho.
Apr
John is knighted
Apr
John is knighted by his father at Windsor Castle before travelling to Ireland.
Apr
John in Ireland
Apr
John accepted the post of Lord or Ireland and travelled there to take control. He was around eighteen years old and took his friends of the same age with him. They treated the native Irish barons with contempt and the English soldiers were unable to subdue the Irish fighters in unfamiliar conditions and the mission soon became a complete disaster. By the end of the year John returned to England. William Marshal, the Earl of Pembroke was entrusted with the task of controlling Ireland.
May
Baldwin becomes Archbishop of Canterbury
May
After the death of Richard, Archbishop of Canterbury in 1184 a dispute arose as to who should replace him. The monks chose Peter de Leia, the bishop of St. David's in Wales, while others chose Baldwin. It took the intervention of King Henry II to put an end to the dispute and he chose Baldwin.
May 1
Eclipse
May 1
There was an eclipse of the Sun over the north of Europe. Interestingly, there was an earthquake that damaged Lincoln Cathedral in 1185. Did the earthquake happen before or after the eclipse? Are the two events related?
More Natural World Events
Jul
Treaty of Boves
Jul
Signed by Philippe Augustus to ensure his authority over his vassals. [17]
Nov
Urban III becomes Pope
Nov
See Also

1186

English Regnal years: 32 Henry II - 33 Henry II
 
Births

Isabella (of Angouleme) (b.1186 - d.1246)

 
Deaths

Geoffrey (Duke of Brittany) (b.1158 - d.1186)

...
Aberconwy Abbey founded
A Cistercian Abbey was founded by monks from Strata Florida in Wales in Conwy. [2]
...
Cleeve Abbey planned
Plans for a Cistercian abbey in Somerset were put forward around about this time. [2]
Jul
Geoffrey, son of Henry II dies in a tournament
Jul
Geoffrey, the son of King Henry II died in a tournament. [12]
See Also

1187

English Regnal years: 33 Henry II - 34 Henry II
 
Births

Arthur (of Brittany) (b.1187 - d.1203)

Louis (VIII, The Lion, King of France 1223-1226) (b.1187 - d.1226)

...
Henry signs a peace treaty
To avoid war with Philippe Augustus, after Philippe had taken Issousun, King Henry II signed a peace treaty at Chateauroux. [17]
...
Crusade sermon at Llandaff Cathedral
Archbishop Baldwin preached the Crusade, the spot being marked with a cross that was restored in 1897.
...
Another fire at Chichester Cathedral
Chichester Cathedral suffered another disastrous fire. Without any delay, building work began to repair the damage caused by the fire, but the craftsmen may have used stone that had been weakened by the fire. A stone vault was added requiring extra flying-buttresses to counteract the increase in weight and the new Transitional style of design was used rather than repeating the old Norman style. [19]
...
Waverley Abbey expansion
By 1187, at Waverley Abbey, there were 70 monks and 120 lay brothers in residence. [21]
Jul
Saladin captures Acre
Jul
After a short siege Saladin captured the port of Acre from the Christians.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jul 4
Army of Jerusalem defeated
Jul 4
The Christian Army of Jerusalem was beaten by Turkish forces at the Battle of Hattin. Guy of Lusignan was King of Jerusalem at this time. All Knights Templars and Hospitallers who survived the battle were executed afterwards. The Archbishop of Tyre, a man called Josias, was dispatched from the city to Europe to inform the Pope and European leaders of the disaster that had taken place and to ask for help. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jul 14
Conrad arrives at Tyre
Jul 14
Only ten days after the Crusader defeat at Hattin, Conrad of Montferrat arrived with group of Italian knights at the port of Tyre. He had first attempted to land at Acre unaware that the city had fallen to Saladin and once he learnt the truth he turned to Tyre. When he arrived at Tyre he found that it was under siege and on the brink of surrender. Conrad took charge and defied Saladin to attack even though the Muslim leader threatened to kill Conrad's father, the Marquis of Montferrat who he held prisoner. For the moment Saladin decided against an attack.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Oct
Gregory VIII was Pope from October to December
Oct
Oct 2
Jerusalem falls to the Muslims
Oct 2
Jerusalem fell to the Muslims and the al-Asqu mosque was returned to Islam. The Muslims allowed four Christian Priests to hold services in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This was in contrast to the first Crusaders who since they first captured the city in 1099 had treated Jerusalem as theirs alone. The Muslim leader was Al-Malik al-Nasir Salad ed-Din Yusuf also known as Saladin. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Oct 20
Pope Urban III dies
Oct 20
When Josias, the Archbishop of Tyre, reached Rome and the Papal Court he informed Pope Urban III of the disaster at Hattin. The Pope was is poor health and the news was too much for him to bare and he died. Gregory VIII was elected as the new Pope but his reign only lasted two months. Gregory died on 17th of December at Pisa. [22]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Nov
Richard takes the Cross. The Crusade
Nov
King Richard took the Cross. Before going on a Crusade a vow was taken and the person was given a piece of cloth in the shape of a cross to be sown onto the surcoat. To go on a Crusade meant a person was granted a plenary indulgence which freed them from the terrors of purgatory and hell if they killed the enemy and gave them the promise of eternal life in heaven. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Nov
Second siege of Tyre
Nov
Saladin turned his attention back to Tyre and offered Conrad gold and the release of his father if the port was surrendered. After Conrad refused to accept the conditions Saladin first ordered an attack by sea. But the crusaders were well prepared and when the Muslim ships entered the harbour a chain was raised behind them and all onboard were killed. With captured Muslim ships, the crusaders were able to drive back any further seaborne attacks.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Dec
Clement III becomes Pope
Dec
Dec
Saladin raises the siege of Tyre
Dec
After failing to take the port by sea, Saladin attempted a land attack, but again the crusaders were too well prepared and came out from their defences and attacked the weary besiegers. Saladin accepted he could not captured Tyre and retreated.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
See Also

1188

English Regnal years: 34 Henry II - 35 Henry II
 
Births

Blanche (of Castile) (b.1188 - d.1252)

...
Cutting of the Elm
Odd events surrounding the meeting of King Henry II and Philippe II of France in a field at Gisors. The events surround a sacred oak tree. [23]
Jan
The 'Saladin Tithe'
Jan
Josias, the Archbishop of Tyre, found King Henry II and Philippe II at Gisors and told them of the defeat at Hattin. Both kings agreed to peace terms and to contribute to a joint Crusade. It was decided to raise a new tax to pay for the endevour. This tax, known as the Saladin Tithe, was imposed on the people of England and France to raise funds for a new Crusade. But the truce between England and France did not last long enough for the planned joint crusade to get underway. [24]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Mar 27
Barbarossa takes the Cross
Mar 27
At Mainz Cathedral, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa took the Cross showing his intention to travel to the Holy Land.  [22]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Summer
War breaks out
Summer
The conflicts between England and France started once again with King Henry II attacking French lands and Philippe II attacking English lands in Normandy. [22]
Nov
Richard does homage to Philippe of France
Nov
Unhappy that King Henry would give the throne of England to John, Richard sided with Philippe Augustus of France.
See Also

1189

English Regnal years: 35 Henry II - 1 Richard I
 
Deaths

Henry (II, King of England 1154-1189) (b.1133 - d.1189)

Matilda (of England) (b.1156 - d.1189)

William (II, King of Sicily) (b.1153 - d.1189)

...
Building work commences at the Tower
While Richard I was away on Crusade, William Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely and Chancellor ordered the enlargement of the bailey surrounding the keep Tower in London. A new ditch and bank were constructed with a new section of curtain wall.
...
John marries Isabella
John married Isabella of Gloucester who was the heiress of the Glamorgan lordship. [25]
...
Teutonic Knights established
The Order of the Teutonic Knights established at Acre. [26]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
...
William Marshal and Chepstow Castle
In 1189 William Marshal married Isabel, the heiress of Earl Richard de Clare. Isabel's castles passed to William including Pembroke Castle. [3]
...
First Lord Mayor of London
The post of Lord Mayor of London was introduced in this year. The first holder of the title was Henry FitzAilwin. [5]
...
Sancho takes the title King of Silvers
After the defeat of the Moors in the Algarve region of southern Portugal, Sancho I adopted the title of King of Silvers. [27]
Jan
Richard joins Philippe
Jan
Richard, joined forces with the French King to attack his own father. [22]
May
Frederick Barbarossa's Crusade begins
May
In early May 1189, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa garthered his army at Ratisbon (now called Regensburg in Bavaria, Germany). He had ensured that his lands were safe while he was away on crusade and left his eldest son Henry in charge of the country. [22]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jul 4
Henry submits to Philippe of France
Jul 4
King Henry II was now seriously ill and submitted at a conference with the French King to peace. Henry agreed to do homage to Philippe and several towns and castles were taken by the French. It was now that Henry learnt of John's allegiance with the French King and this news upset the English King so much it was a major cause of his death.
Jul 6
Henry II Dies
Jul 6
King Henry II died at Chinon and was buried in the choir church of Fontevraud Abbey. Richard, his eldest son, became King of England. William Marshal, who served under Henry II and was favoured by Richard, was sent to England to prepare for Richard's arrival. [12]
Aug 3
Richard returns to England
Aug 3
Richard of Normandy arrived at Portsmouth to claim the crown. [26]
Aug 29
John marries
Aug 29
John 'Lackland' married Isabella of Gloucester. [26]
Sep 3
Richard I Crowned King
Sep 3
Richard I was crowned king in Westminster Abbey. He was escorted along a path of woollen cloth. At the head of the procession was the clergy, first the priors next the abbots then the bishops. In the midst of the bishops were four barons holding golden candelabra, followed by Geoffrey de Lucy, John Marshal, William Marshal and William Fitzpatrick holding the Cap of State, golden spurs, golden sceptre and golden verge. The golden crown was carried by William de Mandeville. Richard was anointed with holy oil on his head, chest and hands. During the service a bat was seen to flutter around the throne which was seen to be an evil omen. [12]
Sep 4
Richard receives homage
Sep 4
King Richard received the homage of the Bishops, Earls, Abbots and Barons who swore fealty to him. [28]
Nov
Death of William of Sicily
Nov
William II, the king of Sicily died suddenly in November of 1189. It had been planned that he would take part in the Third Crusade.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Dec
William of Scotland gives Richard 10,000 marks
Dec
William I of Scotland gave Richard I of England 10,000 marks for the Crusade. This overturned the Treaty of Falaise which William had to sign when captured in 1174. [29]
Dec
King Richard sails from Dover
Dec
Richard set sail with his crusading army from Dover Castle at the end of the year. To ensure he had the allegiance of his younger brother John, Richard had bestowed upon him the title count of Mortain and had approved John's marriage to their cousin Isabelle. But Richard did not nominate John as his heir.  [30]
See Also

1190

English Regnal years: 1 Richard I - 2 Richard I
 
Deaths

Baldwin (of Forde, Archbishop of Canterbury) (b.1125 - d.1190)

Barbarossa, Frederick (Emperor) (b.1122 - d.1190)

Isabella (of Hainault) ( - d.1190)

...
Construction on Skenfrith Castle
Built by Hubert de Burgh this castle is one of the three he owned in the Welsh Marches. White Castle, and Grosmont Castle being the other two. [16]
...
Kidwelly Castle rebuilt
In this year Rhys ap Gruffydd, The Lord Rhys captured the castle at Kidwelly from the Normans. It is possible that he repaired its structure at this time. [31] [32]
...
London adopts the St. George Cross flag
London adopted the cross of St. George, the red cross on a white background. This flag was being used by the fleet of Genoa and allowed the ships from London to use the flag for protection when they entered the Mediterranean on trading missions.
...
Foundation of the Teutontic Knights
A group of German knights on crusade during the siege of Acre formed an Order to assist sick pilgrims travelling to holy land. [33]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
...
Prince Arthur nominated as heir to English throne
Before his departure to the Holy Land, King Richard nominated his cousin, Arthur, as hier to the English throne.
...
Walls around Paris
Philippe Augustus, the King of France, gave the order to begin building walls around Paris. Construction work would last for almost twleve years.
Feb
Treaty of Adrianople
Feb
The large army of German crusaders marched towards Constantinople on the way to the Holy Land. But Isaac II, the Byzantine Emperor, had sided with Saladin and was attempting the stop them by attacking the crusaders. But the German army was too strong and they captured Adrianople. A peace treaty was signed by Isaac and Frederick of Germany, the crusaders' leader, that ensured the Germans were given supplies and free passage through to the Holy Land.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Mar
Massacre of Jews at York
Mar
Even though the Jews were under special protection from King Richard I, because of their wealth that could help pay for the Crusades, the mob attacked 150 Jews hiding in the castle at York. Most committed suicide rather than be attacked by the mob, but the rest believing promises that they would be spared if they came out left the castle and were promptly massacred. The castle, made only of wood at this time was destroyed by fire during the disturbances. [12]
Apr
Beaufort Castle captured by Saladin
Apr
Beaufort Castle was captured by Saladin after a long siege from Raynald of Sidon who had offered to hand over the castle to the Muslim leader on the condition that he had three months to remove his family to a place of safety. At the end of the three months Saladin expected the castle to be handed over but found that Raynald had used the time to refortify and supply the castle against a siege. Raynald mde the mistake of begging for more time and was held hostage by Saladin. Raynald's men finally gave up the castle for the release of Raynald.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jun 24
Richard at Tours
Jun 24
Richard was given the pilgrim's scrip (a bag for the journey) and staff by the archbishop of Tours in preparation for his Crusade. These items were traditionally carried by pilgrims. [34]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jul 3
Meeting at Vézelay
Jul 3
King Richard I of England and King Philippe II, Augustus of France, met at Vézelay and agreed to divide the spoils of the Crusade equally between themselves. They planned to take different routes, Richard via Marseilles and Philippe via Genoa. Richard had around 100 ships at his disposal, several of which were from the Cinque Ports, others from Shoreham and Southampton and more donated by private persons. Other ships were hired from ports in Normandy. Richard could have had a force of around 8000 men half of which could have had horses. [34]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jul 4
Richard's Crusade starts
Jul 4
Richard leaves to begin his crusade.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Sep
Messina
Sep
Richard was in no hurry to reach the Holy Land as he had an issue to resolve in Italy first. William II, the King of Sicily, had recently died. He was married to Richard's sister, Joan, who was bequeathed a large dower, a payment meant to support her if she outlived her husband. William had also bequeathed a large sum of money to Henry II, the king of England. Through force, Tancred of Lecce claimed the throne of Sicily and imprisoned Joan refusing to pay the money to her or the King of England. When Richard arrived in Messina he demanded that his sister should be released and all the money owing should be paid. [34]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Oct
Richard captured Messina
Oct
The people of Messina, supporting Tancred, shut the gates on Richard and attacked his soldiers. In the harbour French ships turned against Richard as the friendship between Richard and Philippe had broken down because Philippe believed Richard was about to refuse to go through with his marriage to Alais, Philippe's half-sister. This was true as Richard had arranged a marriage to Berengaria of Navarre who was travelling to meet him. Richard's men stormed Messina and captured the town. Richard was lenient on the people of Messina and decided to build a fort overlooking the town. Tancred agreed to pay the money owed, freed Joan from prison and paid Richard a large amount of gold. Friendly relations were restored between Richard and Philippe when Richard agreed to split the gold with the French king. [34]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Nov
Death of Baldwin
Nov
Baldwin, the Archbishop of Canterbury, succumbed to the pestilence that had taken hold in the Christian army that was besieging Acre in the Holy Land.
Christmas
Crusaders in Sicily
Christmas
Richard and Philippe stayed in Sicily over the winter months waiting for the weather to improve before continuing their journeys to the Holy Land. [34]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
See Also

3D Virtual Reconstructions

Click to explore

1191

English Regnal years: 2 Richard I - 3 Richard I
...
Foundation of Glenluce Abbey
Foundation of a Cistercian abbey in south-west Scotland by the lords of Galloway.
...
John opposes William Longchamp
John began a campaign opposing William Longchamp who had been appointed administrator of England by Richard I while he was away on Crusade.
...
King Arthur found at Glastonbury
From the Chronicles of Meaux Abbey came the report saying 'In the twenty-third year of Henry, the body of Arthur some time king of the Britons was found at Glastonbury, between two stone pyramids formerly erected in the sacred cemetery. Hidden by a hollow oak, lying about fifteen feet deep in the ground. Some confusion with this date as I've also seen the date 1178 from Meaux Abbey chronicles. [35]
...
Longchamp beseiges Lincoln Castle
William Longchamp besieged Lincoln Castle accusing its owner of corruption. In response, Prince John captured Nottingham and Tickhill castles from William. The sheriff of the castle escaped and found refuge at Prince John's court while his wife Nicolaa successfully held the castle against the siege.
...
The Teutonic Knights
The order known as the Teutonic Knights set up a hospital within the captured city of Acre where they treated the sick and injured Crusaders. The Order was recognised by Pope Clement III.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Mar
Celestine III becomes Pope
Mar
With the death of Pope Clement III, Celestine III was elected to succeed him. He was consecated on Easter Day, 14th of April.
Mar 30
Philippe leaves Sicily
Mar 30
The King of France set sail for the Holy Land a few days before Richard. [34]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Apr
Peace agreed at Winchester
Apr
John and William Longchamp met at Winchester to discuss their differences. Several senior bishops were appointed as arbitrators and at the end of the meeting both John and William agreed to follow the recommendations. Longchamp was to return Lincoln Castle to it's owner and accept limits to his powers. In return John was to surrender Nottingham and Tickhill Castles.
Apr 10
Richard's fleet leave Sicily
Apr 10
The fleet left Sicily to sail to Rhodes. On route, three ships were separated from the group and landed on Cyprus at the port of Limassol. The governor of Cyprus at the time was Isaac Dacus Comnenus, who had come to power from trickery. He had sided with Saladin, and treated Richard's ships as the enemy. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Apr 20
Philippe Augustus arrives in Acre
Apr 20
Philippe Augustus landed in Acre in an attempt to remove Guy of Lusignan as the King of Jerusalem, and replace him with Conrad of Montferrat. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
May 6
Richard sails to Cyprus.
May 6
Richard located the three lost ships at Limissol, and promptly attacked Comnenus' troops in the town and drove them out. Comnenus was again attacked outside the town, but escaped, leaving behind his standard, embroidered with gold cloth. This was later presented to the abbey of Bury St. Edmunds. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
May 11
Meeting in Limassol
May 11
King Richard I met Guy of Lusignan (King of Jerusalem), Geoffrey (Richard's brother), Bohemund (Prince of Antioch), Raymond (Count of Tripoli), Humphrey of Toron and other knights to discuss the attempt by Philippe II of France to replace Guy of Lusignan with Conrad of Montferrat as the King of Jerusalem. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
May 12
Richard marries Berengaria
May 12
Richard took time to marry Berengaria at Limassol. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jun 1
Richard controls Cyprus
Jun 1
By the 1st of June, Richard had control of the whole of Cyprus and imposed a 50% tax in return for letting the Cypriots return to a more traditional way of life. Richard of Camville and Robert of Turnham were left in charge of Cyprus.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jun 6
Richard arrives at Tyre and attacks Acre
Jun 6
King Richard I landed at Tyre and quickly moved towards Acre, where he needed to help an army that was besieging the town which was being held by a garrison of Saladin's troops. By July 12th, the town fell to Richard. Richard held Saladin's men hostage in exchange for 200,000 dinars and the release of 1500 of Richard's own troops who were being held by Saladin. When no ransom was paid, Richard publicly executed 2700 of the garrison. It was at this point that Richard angered Leopold of Austria, who was to imprison Richard as he tried to return to Normandy. Leopold's banner was ripped down from alongside Richard's and the French. The banners indicated that the spoils of war should be shared, but Richard was not prepared the share with Leopold, who had not contributed to the fall of Acre. [12]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jun 23
Eclipse
Jun 23
Most of Europe would have seen the Sun eclipsed by the moon just before midday.
More Natural World Events
Jul
Richard takes Acre
Jul
Under Richard's command, the city of Acre is taken back by the Crusaders.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Sep
Geoffrey Plantagenet lands at Dover
Sep
Geoffrey, the illegitimate son of King Henry II and half-brother to Richard and John landed secretly at Dover. He had been consecrated as the new archbishop of York while in Tours and his return was banned by William Longchamp. Several days after he arrived he was arrested. Citing the Winchester treaty, John sought another meeting between himself and Longchamp. This was agreed and the two were to meet at Loddon bridge near Reading. Geoffrey was freed, but Longchamp decided to flee and headed to Dover Castle.
Oct 6
Tower of London siege
Oct 6
Bishop William Longchamp held the Tower of London against Prince John's supporters for only three days. The Bishop surrendered the Tower and escaped to continue his support for King Richard. [36]
Oct 29
Longchamp expelled from England
Oct 29
William Longchamp was captured when his disguise as a female merchant was seen through. John ordered that he should be expelled from the country.
See Also

1192

English Regnal years: 3 Richard I - 4 Richard I
 
Deaths

Conrad (of Montferrat) (b.1145 - d.1192)

...
Rebuilding of Lincoln Cathedral
After the damaging earth tremors of 1185 Bishop Hugh of Lincoln started rebuilding work on the Cathedral at Lincoln. His new scheme was followed even after his death apart from minor alterations up to the completion of the Angel Choir in 1280.
...
Lincoln Cathedral choir
Work on the choir and east transept at Lincoln Cathedral progressed between 1192 and 1200.  [13]
...
Llansteffan Castle rebuilt
William de Camville had been granted Llansteffan Castle by King Henry II and rebuilding work started in 1192.
...
Cyprus sold to the Templars
King Richard I realised that he didn't have the resources to maintain control over the Cypriots. He worried that back in England, John, his younger brother could sieze the throne. So Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar for a sum of 100,000 besants. 40,000 of which needed to be paid straight away, while the rest was to be paid in instalments.
...
Scottish churches subject to Rome
The churches of Scotland had been under the control of York. In this year Pope Celestine III transferred the jurisdiction of Scottish churches directly to Rome.
Apr 6
Cypriot revolts
Apr 6
The Knights Templar hadn't held Cyprus for long before revolts by the local population forced them to sell the island on. They sold it to Guy de Lusignan who became its ruler.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Apr 28
Conrad is assassinated
Apr 28
Conrad of Montferrat was killed by two Assassins disguised as monks as he walked home. The Assassins, one of whom had been captured alive and questioned, had been sent by their leader Sinan. The suspected reasons for the murder are varied, some theories suggest Conrad had intercepted a shipment of wealthy goods bound for the Assassin Order while others suggest Saladin had ordered the murder of both Conrad and Richard I. Some also suggest it was Richard himself who had ordered the murder.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jun
Richard captures a Moslem caravan
Jun
Word reached Richard that a Moslem caravan rich with supplies was heading for a well known as the Round Cistern. The caravan was not expecting an attack and the Christian army managed to capture a large amount of rich merchandise, horses and camels. [22]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jul
Attack on Jaffa
Jul
Saladin was in Jerusalem when he heard the news of the Christian attack on the caravan. It looked certain that the Crusaders would use the resources that they had captured to continue on and attack the city. But Richard decided to return to Jaffa against the wishes of many in his army. While peace negotiations were again sent to Saladin Richard moved his army up to Acre in preparation to leave the Holy Land. When Richard left Jaffa Saladin took his army out of Jerusalem and attacked the city. After three days of assault the walls of Jaffa fell and the Moslems entered. [22]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Sep 2
Peace with Saladin
Sep 2
Richard the Lionheart signed a peace treaty with the Moslem leader Saladin. [37]
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Oct 9
Richard I leaves the Holy Land
Oct 9
After the agreement of a peace treaty Richard left the Middle East and began the voyage back to England.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Dec
Richard shipwrecked on the way home
Dec
Richard was shipwrecked while returning home from the middle east.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
See Also

1193

English Regnal years: 4 Richard I - 5 Richard I
 
Deaths

Saladin (b.1137 - d.1193)

...
Hubert Walter becomes Archbishop of Canterbury
Hubert Walter follows Baldwin as Archbishop of Canterbury.
...
Saladin dies
Saladin died.
...
West Front of Peterborough Cathedral
The West front of Peterborough Cathedral was constructed between the years 1193 and 1230. [13]
...
Famine in England and France
A terrible famine struck both England and France, possibly caused by prolonged severe weather.
More Natural World Events
Feb
Richard captured by the Emperor of Germany
Feb
Richard was captured by the Emperor of Germany, Henry IV after being shipwrecked on the way home after his Crusade. The Emperor demanded a large ransom to set Richard free.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Jul 9
Peace agreed
Jul 9
Philippe II of France signed a peace treaty at Mantes. The French king was able to keep his gains in Normandy including the castle at Gisors if he stopped any futher attacks. [38]
See Also

1194

English Regnal years: 5 Richard I - 6 Richard I
 
Deaths

Guy (of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem) (b.1159 - d.1194)

...
Plans to move Old Sarum cathedral
Bishop Herbert Poore presented plans to move the cathedral at Old Sarum to a new site nearer the river to be called New Sarum, or now Salisbury. Richard I approved the plan.
...
Siege of Nottingham Castle
The castle at Nottingham was being held by supporters of John but it fell to Richard I after a siege of several days. [3]
...
Denmark Storm
A violent storm almost desolated large areas of Denmark and Norway. [39]
More Natural World Events
Mar
Richard returns to England
Mar
Richard I returned to England after his Crusade and imprisonment in Germany. John had all his castles in England confiscated and the only title left to him was that of Lord of Ireland.
Episode: The Third Crusade [highlight all]
Apr 17
The 'Crown Wearing'
Apr 17
The Crown Wearing. Richard took part in a precession to Winchester Cathedral. The king wore a golden crown and was followed by notables from the Church and State. The previous Crown Wearing was in 1158. [12]
May
Richard leaves England
May
In Nottingham a council was called to hear the King's request for raising taxes. Although a large amount of money had been raised to free him from Germany even more was raised to fund Richard's expedition to France to deal with the King of France. Once the money was raised Richard left England and was never to return. [34]
Jul 3
Richard defeats Philippe
Jul 3
On his return from imprisonment, Richard declares war on Philippe Augustus and defeats him at Fretevel. All the French archives were destroyed in the battle which were being transported in a wagon behind the army. [17]
See Also

1195

English Regnal years: 6 Richard I - 7 Richard I
...
St. Albans alteration to the West End
Modifications to the west end of the church were undertaken under the direction of the abbot John de Cella. The plan was to add an extra three bays to the existing structure. Progress was slow due to mismanagement of the funds and when John de Cella died not much progress had been achieved. The work was completed under the direction of the next abbot, William of Trumpington. [40]
...
Lichfield Cathedral
Construction work on a new chuch at Lichfield possibly began in this year.
See Also

1196

English Regnal years: 7 Richard I - 8 Richard I
...
Arthur proclaimed Duke of Brittany
Arthur, the grandson of Henry II, was given the title of Duke of Brittany.
...
Assize of Measures
The Assize of Measures introduced a common set of weights and measures by which goods must be sold. A standard length of cloth was introduced called the ell. [5]
...
Pedro II becomes ruler of Aragon
Pedro was the son of Alfonso II. He reigned until his death in battle in 1213.
...
Construction of Chateau-Gaillard
King Richard of England organised the construction of a castle overlooking the Seine.
See Also

1197

English Regnal years: 8 Richard I - 9 Richard I
 
Deaths

Gruffydd, Rhys ap (Lord Rhys) (b.1132 - d.1197)

Longchamp, William de ( - d.1197)

Margaret (Young Queen of England) (b.1158 - d.1197)

...
Great Council refuse Richard's request
At the Great Council King Richard I requested that 300 knights should be given to him for a years service in France. The Great Council refused. [41]
...
Building work at Notre Dame
In Paris, Maurice de Sulley died in 1196 but the building work at Notre Dame Cathedral continued under the direction of his successor Eudes de Sulley. [18]
...
Paris floods
Paris may have been flooded. Many bridges being washed away.
More Natural World Events
Apr
Death of Lord Rhys
Apr
After the death of Rhys ap Gruffydd, Lord Rhys, his eldest son Gruffydd ap Rhys was generally accepted as his successor, but not by his brother Maelgwn. With the help of Gwenwynwyn ap Owain, the ruler of the areas around mid Wales, Maelgwn invaded the lands of South Wales controlled by Gruffydd his brother. The invaders managed to capture the town and castle at Aberystwyth.
Aug
Gruffydd ap Rhys captured
Aug
Gruffydd ap Rhys was captuted by his brother Maelgwn and handed his over to Gwenwynwyn ap Owain.
See Also

1198

English Regnal years: 9 Richard I - 10 Richard I
 
Births

Alexander (II, King of Scotland 1198-1249) (b.1198 - d.1249)

 
Deaths

Alice (Daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine) (b.1150 - d.1198)

...
Cleeve Abbey colonised
Monks from Revesby in Lincolnshire moved to Somerset and colonised the new abbey at Cleeve. [2]
...
Cymer Abbey founded
This Cistercian abbey in north-west Wales was colonised by monks from Cwmhir.
...
Innocent III becomes Pope
...
Gruffydd ap Rhys handed to the English
Gwenwynwyn ap Owain exchanged his prisoner, Gruffydd ap Rhys, for a castle(?). Gruffydd ap Rhys was transferred to Corfe Castle. Maelgwn extended his control over the South or Wales.
See Also

1199

English Regnal years: 10 Richard I - 1 John
 
Births

Alexander (IV, Pope 1254-1261) (b.1199 - d.1261)

 
Deaths

Joan (of England, Queen of Sicily) (b.1165 - d.1199)

Richard (I, King of England 1189-1199) (b.1157 - d.1199)

Feb
Teutonic Knights
Feb
The Order of the Teutonic Knights is approved by Pope Innocent III.
Mar
Siege at the castle of Chalus, and Richard dies
Mar
Richard besieged the castle at Chalus where some treasure had been unearthed. Richard believed it was his and tried to take the castle. Riding too close to the walls, Richard was shot in the shoulder. The castle then fell and the archer who shot Richard was brought before him. Richard forgave the archer but Richard's second in command had the archer executed. Richard died of his wounds. On his death bed, Richard nominated his brother John as his heir rather than Arthur of Brittany. Richard was buried at Fontevraud Abbey. [12]
Apr 25
John is crowned Duke of Normandy
Apr 25
John is crowned Duke of Normandy at Rouen by Walter the Archbishop of Rouen. [42]
May 26
Important Appointments
May 26
John landed back in England on the 25th at Shoreham in Sussex. He reached London on the 26th and chose people to help him run the country. He appointed the Archbishop of Canterbury, Hubert Walter, as Chancellor. Geoffrey fitz Peter was chosen as Justiciar and William, Earl of Pembroke, became Marshal of John's household. [42]
May 27
John is crowned King of England
May 27
John is crowned as King of England at Westminster Abbey. [42]
Jun
John divorces Isabella of Gloucester
Jun
King John had been married to Isabella of Gloucester for several years but they had no children. When John became king he quickly obtained a divorce leaving himself free to arrange a marriage that would give him political gain. Within the year he would marry Isabella of Angouleme, the daughter of an important baron in Aquitaine. [10]
Jun
Scottish demands
Jun
William the Lion of Scotland was eager to support John's claim to the throne of England in exchange for ownership of the northern territories of England iincluding Northumberland and Cumberland. John had promised to honour these demands while back in Normandy as long as the Scottish King kept the peace until he arrived. Through mediation the threat of conflict between England and Scotland was put aside. This allowed John to concentrate his efforts against France where King Philip was causing problems.
Jun 20
King John leaves England
Jun 20
King John, along with many nobles, knights and soldiers, left England from Shoreham and sailed to Normandy. Within a few days John and Philip agreed a short peace treaty to last until the middle of August. [10]
Nov
A Crusade is planned
Nov
Count Tibald of Champagne proposed a new Crusade in order to regain Jerusalem that had been captured by Saladin in 1187. [22]
Episode: The Fourth Crusade [highlight all]
See Also

1200

English Regnal years: 1 John - 2 John
...
Rochester Cathedral Presbytery and Choir
Building work on eastern area of the Cathedral at Rochester began in around 1200 and continued until 1227. [13]
...
Lincoln Cathedral Great transept
Work began on the Lincoln Cathedral's main West transept, or Great transept in 1200.  [13]
...
Fire destroys the cathedral at Rouen
The early cathedral at Rouen in France was badly damaged by a fire that destroyed other churches and parts of the city as well. [18]
...
Tintern Abbey, Wexford
Tintern Abbey in Wexford, Ireland is a 13th-century Cistercian monastery located near Saltmills on the Hook Peninsula. It was founded by William Marshal, the Earl of Pembroke, as a gesture of gratitude after surviving a storm at sea. Monks from the Cistercian abbey of Tintern in Monmouthshire, Wales colonised the new foundation.
Jan 2
Annular Eclipse of the moon
Jan 2
An eclipse of the moon occurred at around midnight. (Eclipse Predictions by Fred Espenak, NASA's GSFC) [10]
More Natural World Events
May 22
Philippe and John sign a treaty
May 22
At le Goulet on the River Seine, Philippe II of France signed a peace treaty with King John providing two years of peace. The agreement recognised John as overlord of most of the English owned lands in France, but John had to give Philippe the lands of Norman Vexin and Evreux and a large sum of money. [43]
Aug 24
John marries Isabella of Angouleme
Aug 24
Eager to make peace with the count of Angouleme, John marries his only daughter, Isabella. Isabella was engaged to Hugh of Lusignan, a family which John was worried about due to their power and influence and the fact that an alliance between Angouleme and Lusignan would be a danger to him. Isabella was around fifteen years old. [43]
Oct 8
John and Isabella are crowned
Oct 8
John and Isabella returned to England in late September and were both crowned at Westminster Abbey.
Nov 22
William of Scotland pays homage to King John
Nov 22
During a tour of the Midlands, John received homage from William 'the Lyon', King of Scotland at Lincoln. William was looking to move into the areas of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. John on the other hand ensured that those areas were controlled by Barons he could trust. [42]
See Also

Timeline Navigation

 

Selection of references used:

  • 1: Derek Renn, Norman Castles, 1968, John Baker Publishers Ltd (1968), Own Copy
  • 2: Various, The Cistercian Abbeys of Britain, 1998, ISBN:0-7134-8392-X, B.T.Batsford Ltd (1998)
  • 3: John Kinross, Discovering Castles in England and Wales, Shire Publications Ltd
  • 4: Christopher Hibbert, Tower Of London, 1971, The Reader's Digest Association Limited London (1971)
  • 5: Richard Cavendish, Kings and Queens The Concise Guide, ISBN:978-0-7153-2376-2
  • 6: G.A.Cambell, The Knights Templar. Their rise and fall
  • 7: John Harvey, The Plantagenets
  • 8: Various, The Course of Irish History
  • 9: www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1702-03=&volpage=erupt, Global Volcanism Program
  • 10: The Plantagenet Chronicles, ISBN:1-85501-685-0
  • 11: George Fleming, Animal Plagues from 1490 B.C. to 1800 A.D., 1871, Chapman and Hall (1871), Google Books
  • 12: John Gillingham, The Life and Times of Richard I, 1974, George Weidenfeld and Nicholson Limited (1974)
  • 13: John Harvey, English Cathedrals, 1961, Batsford (1961)
  • 14: Robert Fawtier (translation by Lionel Butler and R J Adam), The Capetian Kings of France, 1966, St. Martin's Press (1966), Oxfam bookshop
  • 15: Mike Salter, Castles and Moated Castles of Warwickshire
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  • 19: The Very Rev. Walter Hussey, Chichester Cathedral, Guide Book
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  • 23: Micheal Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail, Geoff Bath
  • 24: C.H.Frith, Cromwell, 1935, Mackays Limited Chatham (1935)
  • 25: Mike Salter, Castles of Gwent, Glamorgan and Gower, ISBN:1-871731-61-5
  • 26: Peter Potter, Data Donation
  • 27: Bradshaw, Bradshaw's illustrated hand-book to Spain and Portugal
  • 28: Paul de Rapin-Thoyras, The History of England, Volume 5
  • 29: J.D. Mackie, A History of Scotland, 1978, ISBN:0-7139-1206-5, Penguin Books (1978), Harborne Library
  • 30: Geoffrey Hindley, The Book of Magna carta
  • 31: Mike Salter, Castles of South-West Wales
  • 32: Alan Reid, The Castles of Wales, 1973, ISBN:ISBN-0-85097-185-3, Charles Letts & Cmpany Limited (1973), Own collection
  • 33: R. L. Storey, The Medieval World 800 - 1490, ISBN:0-09-178264-3
  • 34: H.W.C.Davis, England under the Normans and Angevins, 1949
  • 35: John Timbs & Alexander Gunn, Abbeys, Castles and Ancient Halls of England & Wales (North), 1872, Frederick Warne & Co. (1872), Mine
  • 36: Derek Wilson, The Tower (1078 - 1978)
  • 37: Zoe Oldenbourg, The Crusades, Charity shop 1.50 pounds
  • 38: Edited by Sidney Lee, DICTIONARY_OF_NATIONAL_BIOGRAPHY, 1893
  • 39: Unknown, The New Tablet of Memory, 1838
  • 40: G H Cook, English Cathedrals through the centuries
  • 41: Elizabeth Luckock and Caroline Gundy, Simon de Montfort, 1969, ISBN:08-008236-6, A. Wheaton & Co (1969), Erdington Library
  • 42: Maurice Ashley, The Life and Times of King John
  • 43: Richard Barber, The Devil's Crown, Mine